Abstract: This report comprehensively outlines the classification of Ethereum Layer 2 scalability technologies, technical routes, representative projects, the advantages and disadvantages of various solutions, and presents future outlooks in conjunction with development trends.
Through in-depth analysis of Layer 2 solutions including Rollup (including Optimistic Rollup and ZK Rollup), Validium, Plasma, State Channel, Unstoppable Rollup, and mainstream projects such as Arbitrum, Optimism, zkSync, Starknet, Linea, Scroll, Polygon zkEVM, and Facet, the architecture, security, performance, degree of decentralization, and ecological development are systematically evaluated.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Background and Necessity of Layer 2
Main classifications of Layer 2
3.1 Rollup
3.1.1 Optimistic Rollup
3.1.2 ZK Rollup
3.2 Validium
3.3 Plasma
3.4 State Channel
3.5 Unstoppable Rollup (new addition)
Analysis of Layer 2 Technology Routes
4.1 Technical Architecture Comparison
4.2 Core Module Analysis
4.3 Key Mechanism Innovations
4.4 Future Evolution Directions
In-depth analysis of mainstream L2 projects
5.1 Arbitrum
5.2 Optimism
5.3 zkSync Era
5.4 Starknet
5.5 Scroll
5.6 Linea
5.7 Polygon zkEVM
5.8 Base
5.9 Mantle
5.10 Taiko
5.11 Facet Protocol (Representative of Unstoppable Rollup)
Challenges and Development Trends of L2 Ecosystem
6.1 Security and Trust
6.2 Uneven Degree of Decentralization
6.3 Cross-Chain Bridging and Interoperability
6.4 User Experience Challenges
6.5 Data Availability (DA)
6.6 Governance and Incentive Mechanisms
Future Development Predictions and Strategic Recommendations
7.1 Technical Evolution Trends
7.2 Large-Scale Deployment of Decentralized Sequencers
7.3 Data Availability Layering and Modular Integration
7.4 L2 Interoperability and the Rise of Layer 3
7.5 Competition Reshaping Among L2 Projects
7.6 Policy Environment and Compliance Trends
7.7 Strategic Recommendations
Conclusion and Outlook
Introduction
With the rapid development of the Ethereum ecosystem, congestion and high gas fees on the Ethereum mainnet have become key bottlenecks restricting its scalability and user experience. To address this issue, Layer 2 (L2) technology has emerged, aiming to move some computations or states off the Ethereum mainnet while ensuring decentralization, security, and composability.
Since 2020, Layer 2 solutions represented by Rollup have rapidly risen, gradually becoming the core direction for Ethereum's scalability.
This report will comprehensively outline the technical architecture, development routes, and representative projects of the current Ethereum Layer 2 ecosystem, providing a systematic reference for investors, developers, and researchers through categorical analysis and project comparison.
The Background and Necessity of Layer 2
As the most active smart contract platform globally, Ethereum supports thousands of DApps and billions of dollars in on-chain assets. However, the current main chain's transaction processing capacity is only 10-20 TPS (transactions per second), which is far from meeting the large-scale application demands of DeFi, NFTs, GameFi, etc. At the same time, Ethereum's gas fees are often high, with ordinary users paying dozens or even hundreds of dollars to complete a transaction during bullish markets.
To this end, scalability has become a strategic focus of Ethereum's development. Although the Ethereum main chain is optimizing performance through means such as The Merge and Sharding, Layer 1 scaling has limitations such as high consensus costs and slow upgrade cycles. Therefore, the community is gradually shifting the focus of scalability to Layer 2.
Layer 2 is off-chain or semi-off-chain protocols deployed on Ethereum, allowing users to transfer assets to L2 for operations and then submitting the final results back to the main chain for verification. This architecture can significantly enhance processing capacity and reduce costs while maintaining the security and decentralized foundation of Ethereum L1.
Currently, the Layer 2 ecosystem has formed multiple technical factions, including Rollup, Validium, Plasma, State Channel, etc., among which Rollup is the current mainstream direction, continuously evolving into subclasses such as ZK Rollup and Optimistic Rollup. Furthermore, Unstoppable Rollup, as a new decentralized evolutionary route, is gradually entering the community's sight.
Main classifications of Layer 2
3.1 Rollup
Rollup is currently the most widely adopted technical path in Layer 2, with the core idea of executing transactions and state transitions on L2 and packaging the minimally necessary data (such as state roots or transaction summaries) on-chain.
Based on the differences between fraud proofs and validity proofs, Rollup is further divided into Optimistic Rollup and ZK Rollup.
3.1.1 Optimistic Rollup
Optimistic Rollup assumes that the submitted data is valid unless someone presents fraud evidence. Its security relies on economic incentives and challenge mechanisms, with representative projects including Arbitrum and Optimism.
Advantages:
Simple implementation, EVM compatible, supports complex contract logic.
Strong scalability, significant TPS improvement
Low barrier for developer migration
Disadvantages:
Withdrawals have a challenge period (usually 7 days)
Weak against MEV
Security relies on economic penalty mechanisms
3.1.2 ZK Rollup
ZK Rollup uses zero-knowledge proofs (ZK-SNARK or ZK-STARK) to submit encrypted proofs of state transitions after executing transactions off-chain, where the main chain only needs to verify the proof to confirm the correctness of the transaction.
Advantages:
Stronger security, almost no trust required
Short withdrawal time, no challenge period required
Can significantly compress data and improve efficiency.
Disadvantages:
High technical threshold, complex circuit development
Currently, EVM compatibility is weak
Development toolchains are still immature.
3.2 Validium
Validium is a scaling solution similar to ZK Rollup, the difference being that Validium stores transaction data off-chain instead of compressing data and still publishing it to the Ethereum main chain like ZK Rollup.
This data availability strategy sacrifices some composability and trust minimization in exchange for higher throughput and lower costs.
Advantages:
Higher TPS, strong scalability, suitable for high-frequency applications like NFTs, gaming, and payments.
Data costs are extremely low, almost independent of Ethereum's main chain data space
Zero-knowledge proofs ensure state validity, security remains strong
Disadvantages:
Data availability relies on centralized services or committees, with trust assumptions
If data is lost, users cannot prove their account status or asset balance
Poor composability, unfavorable for interaction with other smart contracts.
Representative projects: StarkEx (applied to dYdX v3, Immutable X, Sorare, etc.), zkPorter (the Validium model of zkSync), etc.
3.3 Plasma
Plasma is an early L2 scalability solution proposed by Vitalik Buterin and Joseph Poon, based on a sidechain structure.
Users lock assets on the Ethereum main chain and conduct transactions on the Plasma side chain, only interacting with the main chain in disputes or exits.
Its typical mechanism is UTXO model + withdrawal challenges.
Advantages:
Relatively efficient, strong off-chain processing capability.
Low data storage pressure, suitable for high-frequency micropayment scenarios
Disadvantages:
Does not support generic smart contracts, limited functionality
Withdrawal mechanism is complex and has a challenge period
Security and user experience are difficult to balance, gradually being replaced by Rollup
Representative projects: OMG Network, Polygon Plasma (which has transitioned to Rollup), etc.
3.4 State Channel
State channels allow users to interact directly through off-chain channels, only going on-chain when opening and closing, making them suitable for bilateral high-frequency trading scenarios, such as payments or competitive games.
Advantages:
Zero fees, almost instantaneous transaction confirmation.
Strong privacy, transaction records visible only to participants
Disadvantages:
Channels must lock funds in advance, limiting liquidity
Participants must collaborate online, with a high user experience threshold
Supports only peer-to-peer interaction, not suitable for general DApps
Representative projects: Raiden Network, Celer State Channel, etc.
3.5 Unstoppable Rollup
Unstoppable Rollup is a newly proposed scalability architecture centered on 'complete autonomy and permissionlessness.' Official website: https://unstoppablerollups.com/
Its core concept is to eliminate dependence on centralized components (such as sequencers, multi-signatures, security committees) as much as possible while maintaining the security consistency with the Ethereum mainnet, achieving a Layer 2 that is unfrozen, uncensorable, and uninterruptible.
The key features of Unstoppable Rollup include:
Sequencer completely decentralized: All transaction sorting is entirely based on decentralized consensus, without relying on specific operators.
No multi-signature and security committee: The governance mechanism does not rely on a few controllers, and the upgrade and control of smart contracts completely depend on the execution of on-chain consensus mechanisms.
State proof mechanism is secure and transparent: Uses zero-knowledge proofs (ZK) or verifiable consensus layers to provide state submissions, which anyone can verify the legality of Rollup states.
Strong autonomy (Sovereignty): Possesses independent governance and operation mechanisms, allowing Rollup to operate even if the Ethereum mainnet experiences downtime or political interference.
Advantages:
Strong censorship resistance, synchronized with the main network, no single point of failure risk
No trust prerequisite, providing the highest security for user assets
Possesses long-term autonomous development potential, suitable for financial infrastructure.
Closer to Ethereum's philosophical trust-minimized model, with no trusted setups and no implicit arbitrators, it is the ultimate embodiment of 'Ethereum-style freedom.'
Disadvantages:
Performance is limited by sorting efficiency, relying on mainnet sorting or decentralized sorting
Lacks large-scale practical experience compared to centralized sequencer Rollup
Resource scarcity at the early stage of ecosystem development, high user education and migration costs
Representative project: Facet Protocol (has achieved full on-chain sequencing, governance, and state verification).
The proposal of Unstoppable Rollup represents a paradigm shift of Rollup from 'performance-oriented' to 'trust minimization and sovereignty-oriented', providing a new direction for decentralized governance and censorship resistance of future Layer 2.
Analysis of Layer 2 Technology Routes
This chapter will provide an in-depth analysis of mainstream Ethereum Layer 2 routes from the perspectives of technical architecture, core modules, key mechanisms, and future evolution directions, aiming to reveal their technical essence, innovative highlights, and the challenges they face.
4.1 Technical Architecture Comparison
From an architectural perspective, Rollup, Validium, Plasma, State Channel, and Unstoppable Rollup represent different technical paths, with significant differences in data availability, security, execution methods, and proof mechanisms.
Route
Execution method
State submission method
Data Availability
Security model
Optimistic Rollup
EVM-compatible chain
State root + Dispute period
On-chain
Fraud proof
ZK Rollup
EVM / Custom VM
State root + ZK proof
On-chain
Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZK proof)
Validium
EVM / Custom VM
State root + ZK proof
Off-chain
ZK + Data Committee
Plasma
UTXO model
Transaction root + Verification challenges
Off-chain
Verification challenges + Withdrawal delays
State Channel
Peer-to-peer interaction
Start and end state + Signature
Off-chain
Party signatures + Lock-up guarantees
Unstoppable Rollup
EVM-compatible chain
State root + Decentralized consensus + ZK
On-chain / Hybrid
Trustless governance + ZK / On-chain consensus.
As can be seen from the table, Unstoppable Rollup integrates the security of ZK Rollup with the flexibility of Validium, while introducing sequencer decentralization and governance immutability mechanisms, making further strides in ensuring sovereignty and trustlessness.
4.2 Core Module Analysis
Each L2 route includes multiple core modules, typically including: Sequencer, Execution, Prover, Data Availability (DA), Bridging Mechanism (Bridge), etc.
Taking Optimistic Rollup as an example:
Sequencer: Currently mostly centralized services, such as Arbitrum Sequencer.
State execution: EVM equivalent operation
Proof generation: Fraud proof mechanism, challenge period generally is 7 days
Data availability: Transaction data is compressed and published to the main chain.
Bridging mechanism: Standard bridge contracts + Security committees.
Unstoppable Rollup (like Facet) is:
Sequencer: On-chain modular sequencer, relying on consensus mechanisms such as Tendermint and EigenLayer for verification
State execution: EVM compatible, state transitions are public and transparent
Proof generation: ZK-SNARK or STARK state proof submission
Data availability: Optional modules support off-chain expansion + on-chain redundancy guarantees.
Bridging mechanism: No multi-signature, no security committee, uses on-chain signals and zkBridge contracts for trustless interactions
4.3 Key Mechanism Innovations
The innovations in key mechanisms mainly reflect in three aspects:
Evolution of sequencing mechanisms: From centralized sequencers → Decentralized sequencer sets → On-chain sorting modules (e.g., Facet uses EigenDA + on-chain limit sorting)
Governance module reform: From preset governance parameters → Upgradable governance → On-chain governance protocols (e.g., Facet uses Veto + Proposal system)
State proof optimization: ZK-SNARK to ZK-STARK, multi-task proof parallelization, Prover network crowdsourcing (e.g., Succinct, RiscZero)
4.4 Future Evolution Directions
L2 technology is still in a rapid evolution phase, and future evolution trends may include:
The maturity of zk-EVM will improve, achieving full compatibility and high performance.
Modular L2 design (Modular Rollup): Decoupling sorting, execution, and DA, allowing arbitrary combinations (e.g., Celestia + Rollkit)
Standardization of trustless bridging mechanisms (zkBridge / IBC)
Decentralized governance gradually replaces foundation-led control, truly achieving on-chain autonomy.
AI combined with Rollup to achieve intelligent sorting, predictive execution, and traffic scheduling.
The direction of Unstoppable Rollup may become a key trend for long-term evolution in the future, as it provides unconditional sovereignty guarantees and high censorship resistance, especially suitable for on-chain financial infrastructure, national-level projects, and highly resilient foundational public chain applications.
In-depth analysis of mainstream L2 projects
This chapter will provide a detailed analysis of several projects with the greatest influence in the current Ethereum Layer 2 ecosystem, covering their technical architecture, core mechanisms, ecological development status, challenges faced, and future trends.
Analysis subjects include: Arbitrum, Optimism, zkSync, Starknet, Scroll, Linea, Polygon zkEVM, Base, Mantle, Taiko, and the emerging Facet Protocol.
5.1 Arbitrum
Arbitrum is currently the largest L2 project by TVL, using Optimistic Rollup technology, developed by Offchain Labs.
Technical mechanism: Fraud proof + EVM equivalent
Module characteristics: Uses Nitro framework to optimize execution performance
Degree of decentralization: Sequencer is still run by the official, with a high degree of centralization
Advantages: The most mature ecosystem, widely adopted
Disadvantages: Long challenge period (7 days), withdrawal delay issues still exist
5.2 Optimism
Optimism is another leading Optimistic Rollup project, actively promoting the 'Superchain' ecosystem (OP Stack).
Technical mechanism: Fraud proof + Gradually evolving towards modularity
Module characteristics: OP Stack allows for rapid construction of one's own L2
Degree of decentralization: Sequencer is centralized, governance managed by Optimism Collective
Advantages: Fast construction speed, active developer community.
Disadvantages: Sequencer centralization, experimental governance
5.3 zkSync Era
zkSync Era is a ZK Rollup solution launched by Matter Labs, focusing on 'zkEVM' compatibility.
Technical mechanism: zkSNARK + zkEVM (LLVM intermediate layer)
Module characteristics: Native support for account abstraction, built-in payment abstraction
Degree of decentralization: Currently still a centralized Sequencer
Advantages: Smooth user experience, fast switching between L1 and L2
Disadvantages: zkEVM is not bytecode equivalent, limited support for existing contracts.
5.4 Starknet
Starknet is a ZK Rollup launched by StarkWare, based on STARK technology and constructed using the Cairo language for smart contracts.
Technical mechanism: zkSTARK + Cairo VM
Module characteristics: Supports complex computations, high proof efficiency
Degree of decentralization: Sequencer and Prover are gradually being decentralized.
Advantages: STARK high scalability, resistant to quantum attacks
Disadvantages: High development threshold, Cairo not compatible with EVM
5.5 Scroll
Scroll is a bytecode equivalent zkEVM project, maintaining high compatibility with Ethereum.
Technical mechanism: zkSNARK + EVM bytecode compatible
Module characteristics: Seamless migration for Ethereum developers
Degree of decentralization: Sequencer is centralized, plans to open in the future
Advantages: Strong compatibility, low migration costs
Disadvantages: zkEVM performance is still limited, early-stage ecosystem
5.6 Linea (Consensys)
The zkEVM project launched by Consensys aims to achieve complete zkEVM equivalence.
Technical mechanism: zkSNARK + zkEVM
Module characteristics: High integration with Infura and MetaMask
Degree of decentralization: Centralized sequencer, future route unclear.
Advantages: Strong developer support, high wallet integration
Disadvantages: Decentralization path is unclear, scalability needs verification
5.7 Polygon zkEVM
Polygon zkEVM is a zk Rollup launched by Polygon Labs, fully compatible with Ethereum bytecode.
Technical mechanism: zkSNARK + bytecode equivalent zkEVM
Module characteristics: Seamless compatibility with existing DApps
Degree of decentralization: Still in its early stages, Sequencer and Prover not opened
Advantages: Strong compatibility, rich brand resources.
Disadvantages: Obvious performance bottlenecks, high Prover costs, centralized sequencers
5.8 Base (supported by Coinbase)
Base is an L2 supported by Coinbase and built on the OP Stack, aiming to provide on-chain experiences for billions of users.
Technical mechanism: OP Stack + Shared Sequencer architecture.
Module characteristics: Closely integrated with the Coinbase ecosystem.
Degree of decentralization: Fully centralized
Advantages: Strong user entry, convenient fiat currency docking
Disadvantages: Low censorship resistance, high dependence
5.9 Mantle
Mantle is an L2 project led by the BitDAO ecosystem, focusing on a modular architecture.
Technical mechanism: Optimistic Rollup + Modular DA
Module characteristics: Combined with EigenDA, reducing DA costs.
Degree of decentralization: Sequencer and DA are gradually being decentralized
Advantages: Excellent performance, flexible deployment
Disadvantages: The ecosystem is still in the startup phase
5.10 Taiko
Taiko is a completely open-source decentralized zkEVM Rollup, aiming to become an 'Ethereum-like L2.'
Technical mechanism: zkRollup + bytecode equivalent zkEVM
Module characteristics: Permissionless deployment, verifiable sequencers
Degree of decentralization: Transitioning to permissionless sequencers
Advantages: High compatibility + Decentralization
Disadvantages: Verification efficiency is limited, Prover network is still under construction
5.11 Facet Protocol (Unstoppable Rollup)
Facet is a pioneer of the Unstoppable Rollup route, aiming for complete decentralization and no governance compromises in L2.
Technical mechanism: ZK Rollup + Decentralized Sequencer + On-chain Governance
Module characteristics: On-chain sorting, on-chain governance, ZK verification, no permissioned bridge
Degree of decentralization: No multi-signature, no security committee, all sequencers are generated through on-chain bidding
Advantages: Extremely high sovereignty, censorship resistance, trust minimization, particularly suitable for infrastructure projects
Disadvantages: The ecosystem is still in its early stages.
Challenges and Development Trends of L2 Ecosystem
Although Ethereum Layer 2 technologies have made significant progress, and multiple routes and projects are in operation, the entire ecosystem still faces several deep-seated challenges that need to be resolved.
These challenges can be summarized into the following six aspects: security and trust, degree of decentralization, cross-chain bridging and interoperability, user experience, data availability (DA), and governance and incentive mechanisms.
6.1 Security and Trust
Currently, the security of L2 projects mainly depends on their design mechanisms and the degree of reliance on the Ethereum mainnet.
Although the fraud proof mechanism of Optimistic Rollup is theoretically secure, it has not yet been fully deployed in practice; ZK Rollup, while having strong security supported by mathematical proofs, has a complex proof generation mechanism with high thresholds.
Moreover, many L2 projects still rely on multi-signature wallets or security committees for system control, which deviates from the essential goal of decentralization.
For example, although some mainstream L2 projects are advertised as 'permissionless,' in fact, all upgrades and contract control permissions are still concentrated in the hands of a few developers.
6.2 Uneven Degree of Decentralization
Although L2 solutions pursue decentralization, most still adopt centralized sequencer architectures, with the operational rights of sequencers controlled by officials or cooperating organizations.
This model can improve performance and development efficiency in the early stages, but in the long run, it is prone to form monopolies, leading to on-chain data being unable to resist censorship and free sorting.
The route represented by the Facet Protocol for Unstoppable Rollup provides a viable alternative approach in this regard, which is to completely hand over the role of the sequencer to an on-chain public bidding and verification mechanism, achieving true decentralization of the sequencer, thereby enhancing the sovereignty and censorship resistance of Rollup.
(Facet is the only Ethereum rollup that can't be shut off.)
6.3 Cross-Chain Bridging and Interoperability
Currently, most Rollup ecosystems are still in an 'island' state, with asset bridging between L2 and L1 experiencing exit delays, and a lack of native interoperability between L2s.
Cross-chain protocols such as LayerZero and Axelar provide some solutions, but they introduce additional trust assumptions and complexities. In the future, efforts should be made to enhance the Ethereum mainnet's native reading capability of L2 states and promote the establishment of L2 interconnection standards.
6.4 User Experience Challenges
Currently, the user experience of L2 networks still has gaps, including but not limited to: long asset bridging cycles, wallet incompatibility, unstable gas fee estimates, and high failure rates.
ZK Rollup has a better exit experience than Optimistic Rollup, but the high Prover costs still limit its large-scale commercial applications. Future development directions should include on-chain account abstraction (AA), native wallet support, and deep integration of off-chain oracle services.
6.5 Data Availability (DA)
One of the core bottlenecks of Rollup is the data availability issue, as the vast majority of projects still publish state data to the Ethereum mainnet, resulting in high gas costs.
Modular DA layers such as Celestia, EigenDA, and Avail are rising, becoming viable alternatives. Especially, the architecture combining EigenDA with Optimistic Rollup has been tested in projects such as Mantle and OP Stack.
6.6 Governance and Incentive Mechanisms
Many L2 projects still adopt centralized foundation governance, lacking a complete on-chain governance structure and community incentive model. This not only affects fairness but also limits the ecosystem's autonomous evolution.
Facet provides a practical template for On-chain Governance, with its on-chain sequencer auction mechanism, validator reward system, and native token distribution logic expected to form a new generation of governance paradigm for sovereign Layer 2.
In summary, the core problem of the current L2 ecosystem lies not only in scalability performance but also in how to achieve true decentralization, censorship resistance, security guarantees, and long-term sustainable governance.
Future Development Predictions and Strategic Recommendations.
7.1 Technical Evolution Trends
In the next five years, the Rollup ecosystem will move towards a higher level of modularization and sovereignty. Unstoppable Rollup will become the mainstream development direction, with the core concept of building a system architecture without trust intermediaries, truly on-chain governance and sorting.
Facet Protocol is a pioneer of this route, with its on-chain bidding sequencer system expected to become an industry template.
At the same time, ZK Rollup will achieve greater breakthroughs in scalability and performance, and with the development of circuit compression technologies and hardware accelerators, its threshold will be significantly lowered, supporting more complex smart contract logic.
7.2 Large-Scale Deployment of Decentralized Sequencers
Sequencers are currently still the centralization bottleneck of most L2 projects, and will gradually shift towards on-chain verification and trustless operation.
It is expected that after 2025, a large number of sovereign Rollups will adopt on-chain sequencer bidding mechanisms like Facet to reduce single points of failure and censorship risks.
7.3 Data Availability Layering and Modular Integration
Celestia, EigenDA, and other modular DA layers will continue to develop, and Rollup projects will increasingly adopt external DA layers to reduce costs and improve performance.
In the future, a cross-Rollup shared DA model will emerge, realizing multi-chain shared DA layers and enhancing state reading and interoperability efficiency, which also lays the foundation for the construction of Layer 3.
7.4 L2 Interoperability and the Rise of Layer 3
Currently, Rollup interoperability is still limited by asset bridging and messaging systems, and in the future, a 'connected Rollup network' based on shared sequencers and shared state layers will emerge.
The definition of Layer 3 will gradually evolve from 'super application chain' to 'composable modules on Rollups,' integrating various functional layers such as DeFi, social, identity, etc., forming a complete L2 building system.
7.5 Competition Reshaping Among L2 Projects
Optimism and Arbitrum will continue to lead in TVL and user base, but ZK Rollups represented by zkSync and Scroll will gradually catch up in the next three years, especially in high-frequency trading, gaming, and AI scenarios.
Unstoppable Rollup type projects will gradually emerge as key forces against centralization trends, potentially attracting long-term support from the Ethereum core community and developers.
7.6 Policy Environment and Compliance Trends
As Ethereum Layer 2 is increasingly adopted by more enterprises and institutions, compliance and audit requirements will become important considerations in project design. We predict that future L2 projects will emerge that meet global compliance standards, including on-chain KYC, audit logs, regulatory bridge modules, and other mechanisms.
7.7 Strategic Recommendations
For developers: It is recommended to pay attention to the development of zkEVM and on-chain sequencer systems, prioritizing Rollups that support modular and pluggable sequencer mechanisms for construction.
For investors: Focus on early projects in the Unstoppable Rollup direction, especially protocols with independent on-chain governance and no reliance on multi-signatures, which have long-term growth potential.
For the Ethereum ecosystem itself: It should promote the establishment of shared sequencer standards, interoperable bridging protocols, and L2 state native verification specifications to facilitate healthy collaborative development of the entire Layer 2 ecosystem.
Conclusion and Outlook
This article comprehensively outlines the development trajectory, technical routes, representative projects of Ethereum Layer 2, and the key challenges and future trends currently faced.
We can see that Rollup, as the core direction of Ethereum's scalability, not only shows significant improvement in performance but also demonstrates strong vitality in terms of composability, flexibility, and innovation.
Among all technical evolution paths, Unstoppable Rollup is undoubtedly the most revolutionary branch. The direction represented by the Facet Protocol is no longer just a patch for performance optimization, but a redefinition of trust minimization and sovereignty autonomy.
The current L2 ecosystem is at a critical point of transition from 'experimental phase' to 'scalable commercial phase.'
All parties involved—including developers, investors, protocol designers, and end users—need to make strategic adjustments to their roles: builders should consider long-term governance capabilities, capital providers should focus on sustainability and regulatory risk resistance, and the community should strengthen education and open-source collaboration.
We believe that the development of Ethereum Layer 2 is not only a reflection of technological evolution but also a continuation and expansion of the blockchain spirit.
In the coming years, a diversified, modular, decentralized, and interoperable Layer 2 universe will gradually take shape, spawning new business models and social organizational methods.
Rollup is not just a scalability hack—it's Ethereum's political philosophy made executable.
#eths The future is here, just not widely distributed yet.
